recycle Essays - Water Conservation, Recycling, Energy Conversion

Individuals need to reuse in the United Sates, where the populace is expanded each year. The measure of room for landfills diminishes each day. The requirement for reusing ought not be asked, it should simply be done without much forethought. Everybody in America needs to reuse, to help the landfill issue, help nature, and help produce new items from reused merchandise. In America there is around 200 and eight tons of private and business junk produced a year, 4.3 pounds per individual daily (Prichard 1A). This is a staggering measure of destroyed delivered yearly. At the point when individuals reuse this number can be radically decreased. In any case, numerous individuals don't practice and use reusing. Buyers and organizations should utilize the three R?s; reuse, reuse, and energize (Prichard 1A). Customers and organizations are delivering more trash than any other time in recent memory. Accordingly, we are quickly coming up short on landfill space. In 1979 America had near 18,500 landfills, and by 1991 that number was about sliced down the middle (Prichard 10A). Kentucky, Ohio, Minnesota, and Illinois will arrive at their most extreme breaking point on landfills continuously 2005 (Prichard 10A). This entire trash issue has constrained us to attempt different choices. A significant number of these choices have been fruitless. Individuals have had a go at consuming their trash, which makes contamination the earth. A few states even turned to dropping their junk in the sea, just to have exactly the same garbage glide shorewards later. Dumping it on different states prompts fighting neighbors. Indiana passed a law to shut imports of out-of-state junk, yet a government court administered the law illicit (Prichard 10A). Rather than attempting to discover better approaches to dump our refuse, we have to discover better approaches to reuse it and spare space in our landfills. During the 1970s there was a push to utilize reused paper. A laborer at a paper plant in Illinois states, ?Then the issue was sparing a tree. In any case, trees are supplanted. We plant them, we cut them, we plant them once more? (Pendleton). The laborer additionally stated, ?The difficult presently is the landfill circumstance, I think this one is going to stick? (Pendleton). By 1991 thirty-nine states and several neighborhood governments have passed laws or arrangements requiring the acquisition of reused paper. As per Henry Miller, VP of a paper factory stated, ?By volume, thirty-eight percent of strong waste in a landfill is paper and cardboard? (Pendleton). That paper and cardboard, whenever reused could have created that much paper or different items and it would have cleared up thirty-eight percent of numerous landfills ac ross America. One significant approach to get individuals associated with reusing is the earth point of view. Not exclusively would the landfills be chopped down nature increases a great deal by having individuals reuse. So what do the states do to keep the earth clean? They sanction laws against litter and waste. One way is the state requiring the store on lager and soda jugs and jars (Prichard 8A). In those states, a huge number of containers and jars that used to be left on sea shores, hurled in streams and stops or tossed along the expressways are being reclaimed to stores rather for a discount. A twenty-year old understudy from Michigan stated, ?Throwing ceaselessly jars resemble discarding cash to me? (Prichard 8A). These state laws must be working if individuals have this disposition towards reusing jars and containers. States with store laws have discovered that furnishing customers with an impetus to return containers and jars is one of the most straightforward, most affordable approaches to tidy up litter and decrease refuse going into exorbitant landfills (Prichard 8A). Scientists have discovered along these lines of decreasing landfills and empowering reusing beneficial. New York City passed a discount law, mostly because of all the liter and waste individuals toss in the city?s parks and boulevards. The measure of garbage going into landfills from the city of New York City alone decreased by 550 tons for every day (Prichard 8A). That is a ton of reused jars and containers that didn't need to see the landfill. A similar law was set in Vermont and Connecticut. These two states likewise indicated astonishing outcomes. The litter in Vermont was decreased by

The intended learning outcomes will normally be assessed in the Coursework

The expected learning results will typically be evaluated in the accompanying way - Coursework Example Besides, the alumni program taken has additionally empowered me to pick up the perfect measure of competency and abilities for dealing with data innovation issues in order to render compelling answers for the equivalent. I have picked up the abilities for directing systematic capacities in projects, for example, Microsoft Excel and furthermore in rendering introductions using PowerPoint. Abilities picked up on such premise has improved my skills in giving logical answers for business issues, accordingly introducing equivalent to key proposals. Likewise, the alumni program has additionally added to building up my group working and group sorting out aptitudes in order to render the best while working in a synergised situation. I have increased needful understandings of the potential initiative abilities required to properly oversee and persuade individuals in various groups to help accomplish hierarchical objectives and destinations overall. Openings and Skills Required Presently, the activity showcase in United Kingdom presents huge scope openings for work for graduates in a few segments, for example, bookkeeping, banking and the money business, coordinations and buying branches of organizations, deals and advertising, tasks and designing, news coverage and mass correspondence, retail and such. Aside from the recorded openings for work, the United Kingdom advertise additionally gives chances to graduates to fill in as the board or enrollment advisors in the locale. From the plenty of openings for work recorded over, the instance of the retail business would be concentrated with the goal that the aptitudes required for working in the segment would be assessed. It is realized that to work adequately in the retail division in United Kingdom, an individual is required to initially have the perfect measure of logical abilities. Furthermore, the individual is additionally required to have noteworthy information about the business guidelines relating to the district an d along these lines mix such information with the correct business bent to render potential arrangements. Thirdly, clients being the existence blood of retail organizations, the people are required to have compelling client adjusting abilities and group building aptitudes to viably persuade the interior individuals to meet the hierarchical destinations. Notwithstanding the above ranges of abilities, it would be considered as a worth expansion if the people do have the hand-on-understanding for overhauling clients at the floor level, and furthermore the correct information on a potential client base in the locale (High Fliers, 2012, pp.10â€29). Abilities and Gaps Though I have picked up the required discernment to direct diagnostic capacities dependent on Excel, there are enduring holes such information on leading and introducing successful guaging exercises identified with request and flexibly of stocks dependent on assessment of market changes. Correspondingly, a distinct hole i s additionally noted relating to the way that there is absence of verifiable or

SUPA Accelerators Overview and Applications

SUPA Accelerators Overview and Applications Aimee Hopper November 28, 2013 1 Briefly depict the contrasts between the accompanying air conditioning  celerators and give their points of interest and weaknesses (54 Marks) Quickens Protons/Ions with a Kinetic Energy of 20-35 MeV. The work done on the molecule is relative to the voltage of the terminal. (W =qVterminal). The voltage of the terminal is subject to the stature of the gadget (V _ kQL ) where Q is the all out charge of the particles, k is the Coulomb consistent and L is the all out length of the quickening chamber, for example the complete tallness of the gadget through which theâ ion falls. Points of interest extremely easy to make, and the standards behind the quickening are very surely known. simple and modest to keep up Weaknesses extremely hard to get to exceptionally high energies, as the best way to do so it so make an exceptionally high, stable structure. just permits one course for particles to travel. Betraton (6 Marks) Quickens electrons with a motor vitality of 10-300 MeV The betatron is a sort of quickening agent which utilizes an initiated attractive field to quicken electrons to high energies in roundabout circles. Utilizations solenoids with an electric flow going through to create huge attractive fields to twist the particles. Points of interest Straightforward structure solenoids and their properties are surely known and can undoubtedly be tried and fabricated. Impediments Requires a tremendous measure of curls to get the instigated attractive fields required †in this manner substantial and expensive. As the curls arent superconducting, this framework is likewise lossy, thus squanders a ton of vitality. Cyclotron (6 Marks) Figure 2: [3] Quickens Protons/Ions with an active vitality of 10 100 MeV. A round gadget which works utilizing enormous magnets to twist the particles. Two semi-roundabout plates are associated with an AC source, applying a voltage over a hole between the plates. This applied voltage makes the molecule quicken. In any case, as there is likewise an enormous attractive field present, the molecule is compelled to twist its way as it quickens, following a round way. The more vitality the molecule gets, the bigger its span becomes until in the long run it is removed from the gadget. (v = qBr m where q is the charge of the molecule, B is the attractive field quality applied over the plates, r is the span of arch of the molecule and m is the mass of the molecule.) Points of interest A similar hole can be utilized for all energies of particles, as the kick that is gotten will consistently be in-stage with the kick created by the AC source. This is on the grounds that as the particles accelerate, they have a more drawn out way, along these lines take more time to show up to a similar point they were initially. Drawbacks To have a little gadget, enormous attractive fields are required, which could represent an issue to the set-up and cost of the venture. As the particles become relativistic, the AC source lingers behind, in this manner not delivering the right kick to the particles, perhaps expelling vitality from the framework. Synchro-cyclotron (6 Marks) Quickens Protons/Ions with an active vitality of 100-750 MeV Extraordinary type of cyclotron considers relativistic slack from the AC sources. Points of interest There is no requirement for a tight hole between the plates as on account of customary cyclotron, in light of the fact that solid electric fields for delivering enormous speeding up are not required. Thus, just one plate is required rather than two, the opposite finish of the swaying voltage flexibly being associated with earth. The attractive post pieces can be brought nearer, along these lines making it conceivable to increment enormously the attractive motion thickness. The recurrence valve oscillator can work with a lot more noteworthy proficiency. Disservices The machine creates high vitality particles with a nearly low force. Synchrotron (6 Marks) Figure 3: [?] Quickens either electrons (motor vitality of 1-10 GeV) or protons/particles (dynamic vitality of 1-1000 GeV). Uses various sorts of magnets dipoles (twist the pillar), quadrupole (center the shaft), sextupoles (represent chromaticity of the bar) and so forth. Utilizations RF cavities to embed vitality into the molecule pillar to represent synchrotron misfortunes and increment the vitality of the shaft Points of interest Can produce a high glow pillar at exceptionally high energies. The Synchrotron radiation lost can be utilized for different applications which require a quite certain frequency, for example, clinical applications. Drawbacks Experiences radiation misfortunes A synchrotron can't utilize relativistic particles, as RF slack would turn into an issue. Capacity ring (6 Marks) Quickens electrons with a dynamic vitality of 1-7 GeV [European Synchrotron Radiation Facility]. A capacity ring is an atom smasher that keeps a molecule bar at a specific vitality for a significant stretch of time. This is helpful, particularly in synchrotrons, as the bar can be kept at a specific vitality guaranteeing that a particular recurrence is produced as radiation. Preferences Stores a molecule bar at a specific vitality, so dont need to build pillar vitality from 0 (tedious). Weaknesses Frameworks must be extremely exact and stable †expensive Collider ring (6 Marks) Quickens electrons (active vitality of 10-100 GeV) or protons/particles (active vitality of 1-7 TeV [Large Hadron Collider]). Particles of a specific vitality are infused into the ring and put away there until they are compelled to crash at set focuses all through the structure. Focal points Can arrive at higher energies than in a LINAC at much lower cost because of giving each pillar a large portion of the necessary focus of mass vitality. in the case of utilizing molecule antiparticle, at that point a similar hardware will quicken the two shafts in inverse ways (because of contrast in control) Hindrances Pillar pipe needs to hold 2 bars, which need to possibly cooperate with one another when required need exceptionally precise hardware to guarantee shaft remains isolated. Linacs (6 Marks) Quickens electrons (dynamic vitality of 20 MeV to 50 GeV) or protons/particles (active vitality of 50-800 MeV [Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility]) A Linear Accelerator quickens the molecule shaft along a straight line instead of a round way. Points of interest No vitality misfortune because of particles quickening in a bend. Can quicken substantial particles to far higher energies than conceivable in the round quickening agents. Can deliver a ceaseless stream of particles rather than grouped particles present in round quickening agents. Detriments Should be extremely long to get up to high energies. A high number of AC driver sources are required, which is both expensive and acquaints potential mistakes due with out-of-stage issues. Direct collider (6 Marks) Quickens electrons from 50-1000 GeV. A direct collider is utilized to impact particles in an orderly fashion towards each other. Focal points No vitality should be siphoned into the bar to represent radiation misfortunes. shafts will always be unable to interface with one another before the impact focuses, in this way can utilize littler bar pipes. can quickens heavier particles since they dont should be twisted. Inconveniences  For crashes with the most noteworthy conceivable vitality, two linacs creating pillars with a similar vitality headed towards one another, the total machine would should be long! 2 Explain the benefits of utilizing a collider rather thanâ a single pillar for crash tests. Delineate yourâ answer by considering 7 TeV proton shafts. (10 Marks) By utilizing 7 TeV proton shafts in a collider, a focal point of mass vitality of 14 TeV can be accomplished by sending the two bars in inverse ways to impact. This is clearly extremely valuable when testing matter, as a higher vitality will bring about higher mass particles/all the more low mass particles being created, subsequently accessible for investigation. The single shaft would just have the option to arrive at 7 TeV, thus has a restricted range by correlation with the collider. To get a focal point of mass vitality of 14 TeV in a solitary pillar is additionally inconceivably hard to create, both because of the expense and the size of the hardware required. In this manner a 14 GeV pillar isnt possible to deliver. Though 7 TeV is generally simple. Likewise, when 14 GeV becomes simple to deliver, a focal point of mass vitality of 28 GeV would then be conceivable, which is undeniably progressively alluring for high vitality examines. 3 Explain quickly how a laser-plasma wakefield acceleratorâ works. What decides the breaking point in vitality for a uniformâ plasma thickness? (13 Marks) In laser-plasma wakefield increasing speed, a laser beat is utilized to energized exceptionally high electric fields in an after plasma wave. Effective vitality move is made between laser heartbeat and plasma wave if both the wave and the beat are going at a similar speed, with a high vitality gain being realistic in low-thickness plasmas, in which the stage speed of the laser-plasma is equivalent to the laser beat bunch speed, which is extremely near the speed of light. This permits the longitudinal electric fields related to the quick plasma wave to quicken relativistic particles inside the plasma, and can even snare the particles to the electrostatic wave. This permits particles to be helped to exceptionally high energies in an extremely short separation. It is significant that the thickness of the plasma is beneath the basic thickness (nc =1:1 _ 1021=_20 _m)[5] We realize that the most extreme vitality of a wave is identified with the 2g of the wave by the condition E _ epn _1g (1) where g is the lorentz factor related with the gathering speed of the laser beat which is equivalent to g =!0!p (2) So the more thick the plasma, the lower g is, and in this way the more slow the wave ventures. In the event that the wave voyages too gradually, at that point the particles will move away from the wave quicker. 4 Briefly depict how a FEL and synchrotron radiationâ source functions. What is the upside of a free-electronâ laser? (10 Marks) A free-electron laser uses both undulato

Tips on How to Research What is Asked During Interview Essays

Tips on How to Research What is Asked During Interview EssaysThere are various tips to be learned from samples of an interview essay. Learn how to research what is asked and read the interview questions carefully.It is always important to know what you want to say, and not just to say what is asked. Researching the questions that are usually asked before writing your essay is very important. It will help to write it with the thought in mind, and be prepared for the questions that might be asked.There are various sample questions that are commonly asked by interviewers. This helps you to prepare in advance for what might be asked. By knowing the exact question that may be asked, you can begin to develop a great story for your essay.Do not just memorize one or two different things. Be prepared for what may be asked. This allows you to tailor the essay to fit the tone and style of the interviewer. You should prepare to answer the questions completely, and not just lightly cover the ques tions.Listening is a powerful way to practice your answers. By listening to the interview without speaking, you can find out what the interviewers need to hear. They can tell how you respond to certain situations, and how well you are responding. This will help you practice and come up with solid answers.Doing practice interviews before you write your final draft is essential. These practice sessions help you gauge how well you have responded to the questions. By observing the interviewee at work, you can see if they know the details of the topic being discussed. If you do not have time to write your essay, then do some practice interviews first to build up your confidence.Interviews are stressful and need preparation. Preparing yourself to write an essay is essential for essay writing success. Reading and researching interview questions is a great way to gain insight into how you will answer the questions being asked.

The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain - 1264 Words

Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is one of the most famously argumentative narrative novels in American literature. It is a greatly widespread read book in America. However, when released, it was greeted with skepticisms and disapproval from whites and, decades later, it is met with harsher criticism from African Americans. Though a literary masterpiece, the novel has been the talk of many controversial topics. During the times of Huckleberry Finn, a familial relationship between a white boy and a black slave would be deemed unacceptable and in current times multiracial relationships are still considered taboo. Throughout history the relationships between blacks and whites has been difficult. From as early as the 14th†¦show more content†¦However, even people today have strong bonded relationships with their property. Just try taking a smartphone away from a teenager. Throughout history, black and white relationships did form. Relationships between house servants and their masters, black and white children, and children and adults of the two different races were prominent and complex. Since they all worked in close proximity, house servants and their owners tended to form relationships. Black and white children were especially in a position to form bonds with each other. In most situations, young children of both races played together on farms and plantations (PBS). Black children would often times become attached to white caretakers, such as the mistress, and white children to their black nannies. This is the result in them being so young and them not having an understanding of the system they were born into. Yet in the times and writings of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a relationship between an adult black slave and a young white child is unfathomable. The foundations of Huck and Jim’s relationship are laid early in the novel. When Huck’s abusive father, Pap, reenters the boy’s life after a lengthy absence, he forcibly seizes control of Huck. Pap soon claims official guardianship of his son in order to command Huck to work for him and to make money for him (Twain 33). Papa kidnaps Huck and takes him into what can be considered as slavery, even though he does not

My Volunteer Service At Fallbrook Church - 1062 Words

Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill, regarding the ability of an individual or an organization to lead or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. Leadership cannot be defined by just one word, but by action. I have seen development within myself through my volunteer service. Leadership is both a research area and a practical opportunity to share the ability gained as an individual, also through my organizations to lead or guide other individual team members who have a common goal. Volunteering in the church organizations matches my need to be of service to others. While volunteer at Fallbrook church I in return have been served I have been guided, nurtured, and challenge through the process. I have been able to utilize skills acquired throughout this year that enhance my volunteer service. I have been able to challenge the process, inspire shared vision and model the way through the course of a year. I have been mentored and taught moral, values and standard through weekly Bible studies. I ve been able to gain knowledge that is useful for the children I care for on Sunday while their parents receive education. I model the way through the actions, lessons, and support I teach the children my return presence is a reminder to the children that I will be a reliable and meet there needs gives them a sense of security. When children see good behavior modeled they are more than likely to model the same behavior. My interactions with the

Doctrine of Consideration free essay sample

For a contract promise to be enforceable, that promise must normally be supported by consideration. Any contractual promise must be supported by consideration unless an exception applies. A promise will be supported by consideration if it’s given as part of a bargain or exchange rather than a gift. Second, the promiser or 3rd party should receive some act forbearance or return promise. If the promise is doing something or promising to do something different from what he was already obligated to do and that something is being given in exchange for the promisor’s promise then, the promisors promise is supported by consideration†. Where consideration matters. Modification of existing contract to one party’s sole benefit, settlement of claim, partial payment of debt. Where rwo parties are strangers who meet for the first time and â€Å"make a deal† (exchange promises), there’s probably no problem of lack-of-consideration. â€Å"Discount Price† yes Where a transaction is a mixtures or bargain and gift, consideration repuirement is met. We will write a custom essay sample on Doctrine of Consideration or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Unsupported – unenforceable, supported enforceable Promises to make gifts are not supported by consideration and therefore non-binding. Therefore, if a person backs out of a gift propsiton, the promise is not supported by consideration. Consideration is an essential ingredient for the excitence of a contract. L Wilberforce, The Euromedon. Professor Treitel English law recognizes consideration. He agrees that courts invents consideration in certain circumstances. Professor Atiyah states consideration is any good reason for enforcing a promice. Consideratin is merely evidence that both parties take the agreement seriously. The doctrine of consideration can therefore be seen as a set of rules, which play the principal role in the decision by the courts as to which agreements or promises are found to be legally binding. For a promise set out in an agreement to amount to a breach of contract if it is not carried out, the promise must be supported by consideration. If no consideration is given for the promise there is no contract, but rather a promise of a gift. For consideration to exist the promisee must promise or do something that is of value in the eyes of the law Definitions of consideration fall into two groups. The first defines consideration in terms of benefit and detriment. The second defines it as an element of a bargain: Under the bargain definition of consideration, before a promisee’s promise or act can be regarded as consideration, it must be established that the promise or act is given at the request of the promisor and in reliance upon the promisor’s promise: Contracts can be categorised as being either simple or formal. A simple contract can be entered into orally and/or in writing. A formal contract is one where the agreement is entered into in a particular written form known as a deed. Historically deeds were referred to as documents under seal or specialties. This nomenclature reflected the fact that such documents were sealed by the party to be bound. In deeds it is common to refer to the promisor as the covenantor and the promisee as the covenantee. In simple contracts consideration is always necessary. With agreements set out in a deed consideration is not necessary. The procedure for execution and delivery of a deed is now largely governed by statute. The essence of the doctrine of consideration is that a promisor’s promise can only be enforced by a promisee if he or she has provided consideration for the promise. There are two parts to this rule: (i) consideration must move from the promisee; and (ii) it need not move to the promisor. An important qualification to this rule relates to joint promises So-called ‘past consideration’ is not consideration. In Attorney-General for England and Wales v R, at 106, Tipping J said that ‘[a]n act already done without reference to a promise does not satisfy the concept of an exchange which underpins the law of consideration’. The use of the expression ‘illusory consideration’ here relates to circumstances in which it is claimed that there is consideration by the promise of performance of some act, but where there is also a discretion as to whether to perform that act. The conditional nature of the obligation to perform precludes the promise from being consideration: For the promisee’s promise or act to be consideration, it must be of value in the eyes of the law. ‘[C]onsideration does not have to be commercially adequate to be sufficient in law/ In contract law, consideration refers to any bargained-for exchange. Basically, for a contract to be valid, there must be an exchange of goods and/or services. Because the vast majority of contracts are for sales of some type, consideration usually takes the form of an exchange of money for goods or services. For consideration to be valid (thus making the contract valid, if all the other requirements for the validity of a contract are met), the things exchanged must be of some legal value. However, a court will generally not inquire into whether or not a particular form of consideration is sufficient. So, if you decide to sell your house for $50, and after the deal is done, realize youve made a horrible mistake, you cant go to court and argue that the sale is invalid, because there was no consideration. The fact that $50 is an absurdly low price for any house is irrelevant, as long as you agreed to the sale freely. However, if there an agreement truly lacks consideration, the agreement is not a valid contract, and can therefore not be enforced. For example, if you promise to give your house to a friend, for free, with no strings attached, and put the agreement in writing, accompanied by every possible formality, you can change your mind at any time. Your friend cannot sue you for breach of contract, because no contract existed in the first place, as it was unsupported by consideration (your friend did not give or promise you anything in return for your house). However, once you actually transfer ownership of your house, you cant back out (as with any gift, it becomes the property of the recipient once the transfer is complete), but you could do so any time before the gift occurs. An example of the requirement for consideration is why you will sometimes hear of very expensive items being sold for very small amounts of money, such as a house or car being sold for $1. For example, I at the beginning of this year, I was given the opportunityThese transactions are essentially gifts, but the token consideration is there to ensure that the agreement is legally binding, in case the donor tries to back out. By making the agreement legally binding, the donor shows good faith. Consideration is considered to be an essential element of a valid contract largely for historical reasons. Because contract law was created to protect the rights and interests of parties to commercial transactions (essentially, its purpose is to ensure that people keep their promises). Commercial transactions always involve some exchange, so it just became an underlying assumption that all contracts would involve an exchange. Also, when an agreement which is completely unsupported by consideration is breached, the victim of the breach hasnt really lost anything, since they didnt give anything up in the first place, so it is not very important for such an agreement to be enforced by a court. However, if there is a breach of a promise supported by consideration, the victim of the breach has suffered a loss, especially if they have already performed their end of the agreement, and are now getting nothing in return. Some right, interest, profit or benefit accruing to the one party of a contract, or some forbearance, detriment, loss or responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the other. Under common law, there can be no binding contract without consideration, which was defined in an 1875 English decision as some right, interest, profit or benefit accruing to the one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss or responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the other. As stated recently in Terrafund Financial Inc. v 569244 BC Ltd. : It is a fundamental principle of contract law that in order to create a binding contract which the law will recognize and enforce, there must be an exchange of consideration between the parties. Consideration is simply something of value received by a promisor from a promisee. It can take the form of a right, interest or benefit accruing to one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss, or responsibility, given, suffered or undertaken by the other . If there is no consideration there is no contract; and if there is no contract, there is nothing upon or from which to found or create liability. †¦ The act or promise of one party is, as it were, bought or bargained for by the act or promise of the other; each party exchanges something of value. To create an enforceable contract there must be reciprocal undertakings. So, if one party is neither giving anything, nor is promising to do or give anything, there is no consideration for the other party’s act or promise. Historically, when all contracts were verbal (parol), the common law did not want to enforce gratuitous offers, those made without anything offered in exchange (such as gifts), to be given the protection of contract law. So they added the criteria of consideration. But since consideration, as Judge Wilmot said in a judicially radical case in 1765, Pillans v Mierop, came from an era when contracts were verbal not in writing. Something was then required by the law to formalize agreements; to allow the Court to determine where there had been deliberate action to obligate oneself:   to put people upon attention and reflection, and to prevent obscurity and uncertainty. Writing, widely available by 1765, surmised judge Wilmot, gave contract-making formality enough and consideration ought not to be needed. This opinion was rejected by subsequent English courts and debtors of contracts where consideration was elusive, based on strict common law, were finding ways to abscond on their obl igations and pre-empt a court from enforcing an otherwise valid contract against them. Later, other judges said that a moral obligation was good enough consideration. Again, this too, was eventually rejected as the common law continues today to struggle with the necessity of consideration as a requirement for a valid and enforceable contract, especially in regards to promissory notes and cheques, where consideration is not apparent. Soon, a simple moral obligation was back in vogue as sufficient consideration and in regards to contracts reduced to writing, the Courts went to great length to prevent any defence to it based on a lack of consideration. Even today, consideration is a sensitive subject to most common law lawyers who might explain that it is a requirement at law but struggle with what the requirement might be. This is an example of the failing of a common law system. Nobody knows what the law is but like the fable of the emperor having no clothes, there is no brave common law leader to yell loud enough that the emperor has no clothes. Consideration is not required in contracts made in civil law systems and many common law states have adopted laws which remove consideration as a prerequisite of a valid contract. A contract void of consideration is said to be nudum pactum. Laws of contract around the world stipulate that for a contract to be legally enforceable, must include a consideration in return for an obligation specified for one or more party to the contract. This means each party must agree to give or do something in return for what they receive as per the terms of contract. This provision is designed to exclude from the scope of law of contract, the promises the promises made by people to others out of love, compassion, or others relationships of personal nature. This if I  promise a friend that I will accompany him to a movies in the evening, but due to some unexpected developments later decide not to do so then my friend cannot sue me for breach of contract, as there was no consideration promised to me in return for my obligation. The phrase consideration need not be adequate refers to the fact that lay only requires that there should be a consideration. It does not require that this consideration should be adequate compensation for the what is given or foregone by the other party. At times this absence of requirement of adequacy of compensation, is misused to circumvent the provision of consideration. For example, a person may donate a property worth millions of dollars by selling it at a nominal price of just 1 dollar. In common law it is a prerequisite that both parties offer consideration before a contract can be thought of as binding. The doctrine of consideration is irrelevant in many jurisdictions, although contemporary commercial litigant relations have held the relationship between a promise and a deed is a reflection of the nature of contractual considerations. If there is no element of consideration found, there is thus no contract formed.

The Status of Women in Islam Essay Example

The Status of Women in Islam Essay The interpretation of original Islamic texts paints a far liberal and feminist picture than what is made of it in the centuries to follow. What we see in today’s Islamic world is a lot of injustice to women. Women are oppressed under the false pretense of upholding Islamic virtue. The present system â€Å"keeps people locked in roles that stunt their growth and unjustly penalizes women who would exercise their rights†. Indeed, if true Islam were to be implemented many injustices against women could be prevented – rapists won’t go free, victims won’t be jailed, women would be educated and fundamentalist thugs like the Taliban would not have thrived. Some primitive traditional practices that we see in Islamic societies today is more a cultural norm than a religious one. A few extreme examples are female genital mutilation and forced marriages. More mundane practices include the prohibition of women from driving cars, etc. These rules cannot be traced to Islamic literature. The edicts in Koran are equally applicable to both men and women. According to Islam, on the moral scale, both men and women are deemed equal. Islam does not discriminate between the status of men or women. The dynamic of a marital relationship requires that man has authority in certain matters. It is incorrect to assume that this implies a lower status for women. It says, â€Å"Man and Woman were created of a single soul and are moral equals in the sight of God. The rights and responsibilities of a woman are equal to those of a man but they are not necessarily identical with them. Equality and sameness are two quite different things. This difference is understandable because man and woman are not identical but they are created equals. This is especially true as it is almost impossible to find even two identical men or women.† (Jafar) We will write a custom essay sample on The Status of Women in Islam specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Status of Women in Islam specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Status of Women in Islam specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer According to the Koran, men and women are units of a pair. When both are taken independent of each other, there are certain obvious vacuums in the emotional, physical and psychological personalities of each. The Koran further goes on to say that God has created the two in such a way that they are complementary to each other in different ways, so that these vacuums are generally removed to a great extent. For this very purpose, God gave different mental, physical and emotional qualities to the male and the female of the species. These different mental, physical and psychological qualities, on the one hand complement man and woman, and on the other establishes for them different facets of activity in their personal and intimate relationships. Though women are regarded equal to men, it is important to note that they are not the same. This difference in their dispositions is an essential and desirable aspect of society. Keeping in mind this distinction, their rights are also different. Thus taking Koran by its word, women are not inferior to men. Women are given equal, but not identical rights, in recognition of their unique personality. The Koran provides clear-cut evidence that woman is completely equated with man in the sight of God in terms of her rights and responsibilities. However, considering the differences in physiology the woman is exempted from the daily prayers and from fasting during her menstrual periods and forty days after childbirth. She is also exempted from fasting during her pregnancy and when she is nursing her baby if there is any threat to either’s health. The right to choose one’s husband is another measure of empowerment. The importance of a woman’s consent to marry a particular man is stated in no unclear terms. However, the prevailing practices in some Islamic countries like Pakistan and Bangladesh is incongruent with this edict. The concept of dowry is much misunderstood. It is not the price to buy a bride, but rather, a gift of love by the groom. This is a practice of prudence as it provides her with financial security for unforeseen developments. Koran’s endorsement of polygamy is another misused custom. At the time the Koran was revealed, most Arabic nations were involved in warfare, which resulted in a number of widows with children.. Taking this into account, a man was allowed to take as many as four wives, not to gratify him but to share the societal responsibility. The precondition for such additional marriages is the man’s ability to cater and support his wives. As a matter of fact, the widows were not sexy young women, â€Å"but usually mothers of up to six children, who came as part of the deal†. It is a good sign that polygamy is not so common today. The Islamic law pertaining to divorce takes due consideration of women’s needs and treats her fairly. Also, in any marital dispute all options for reconciliation are tried before the decision to grant divorce is arrived. Muslim women’s dressing is portrayed in the western media as anachronistic and oppressive. There is some rationale behind these dress codes. The emphasis is on modesty and prevention of unwanted sexual advances. It is perfectly alright to wear attractive and graceful dresses, while avoiding being provocative. Given the context of our times, when sexual abuse of women is in ascendancy, the Islamic dress code helps maintain moral integrity. However, taken to the extreme, the veiling can have a repressive effect. Islamic Law is just and fair with respect to a woman’s property rights. In addition, Islam restored to woman the right of inheritance, after she herself was an object of inheritance in some cultures. Her share is wholly hers and none can make any claim on it, including her brother, husband and father. Irrespective of whether she is single or married, she can â€Å"buy, sell, mortgage or lease any or all her properties†. Women’s employment is not encouraged, for it is regarded that her primary role in society is as a mother and care giver. It is reasoned that this noble responsibility helps shape mentally and physically sound children. The scriptures grant women appropriate rights of inheriting wealth based on the context. â€Å"Whether she is a wife or mother, a sister or daughter, she receives a certain share of the deceased kin’s property, a share which depends on her degree of relationship to the deceased and the number of heirs. This share is hers, and no one can take it away or disinherit her. In the case of inheritance, the question of quality and sameness is fully applicable.† (Jafar) Also, a woman has no financial responsibilities whatsoever except for her personal expense, the high luxurious things that she likes to have. She is financially secure and provided for. If she is a wife, her husband is the provider; if she is a mother, it is the son; if she is a daughter, it is the father; if she is a sister; it is the brother, and so on. If she has no relatives on whom she can depend, then the question of inheritance does not arise because there is nothing to inherit and there is no one to bequeath anything to her. However, she will not be left to starve, maintenance of such a woman is the collective responsibility of the society. She may be given financial aid or a job to earn her living, and whatever money she makes will all be hers The proportion of inheritance between men and women though may vary. This is in recognition of the additional financial responsibilities that lay on a man’s shoulder and not a statement of supremacy of one over the other. An inquiry into the history of Islamic scripture will present clear evidence for women’s political rights. Women were allowed to be nominated to political offices. However, their participation in public affairs today is highly disproportionate. The Koran expresses some reservations about women’s leadership abilities as they are emotional by nature. This is not to slight women, but to acknowledge their psychological makeup. â€Å"She is entitled to freedom of expression as much as man is. Her sound opinions are taken into consideration and cannot be disregarded just because she happen to belong to the female sex. It is reported in the Koran and history that woman not only expressed her opinion freely but also argued and participated in serious discussions with the Prophet himself as well as with other Muslim leaders.† (Wollaston) Historical documents prove this elevated life-style of women during the early days of Islamic tradition. Women nursed wounded soldiers, prepared supplies and provided vital support during times of war. Such public participation was much appreciated and welcomed. For bearing witnesses in civil disputes and agreements, two women are treated as equal to a man. This is so because women are generally not experienced with affairs of commerce and is likely to make errors of judgement. In this case, two women are better to only one. How far this holds true in the contemporary world is another debate. Nevertheless, this law is a precautionary measure and not an instrument of derogation to women. Another way of looking at this law is that, it gives women a great opportunity to participate in public affairs. The two primary scriptures of Islam, the Koran and the Hadeeth, guarantee women the rights they deserve. Contrary to prevailing beliefs, women are given special privileges to attend Mosques at night. That women are required to stand behind men in mosques is not because they are discriminated against. The prayers offered in such places involve assuming various bodily postures. It is conceivable that some of the routines will disturb a woman’s clothing and expose her skin. Such distractions are least wanted in a place of worship. So the practice was introduced as a means to aid concentration on God. The holy books of Islam emphasize the importance of education to all muslims, irrespective of their sex. â€Å"She is equal to man in the pursuit of education and knowledge. When Islam enjoins the seeking of knowledge upon Muslims, it makes no distinction between man and woman. Almost fourteen centuries ago, Muhammad declared that the pursuit of knowledge is incumbent on every Muslim male and female. This declaration was very clear and was implemented by Muslims throughout its early history. It is a sad fact that much transgression is manifest today.† (Gruver) There is no decree in Islam which prohibits woman from seeking appropriate employment whenever there is a necessity for it, especially in positions which fit her nature and in which society needs her most. Examples of such professions are nursing, and teaching, especially for children. Moreover, there is no restriction on benefiting from woman’s extraordinary talent in any walk of life. Early muslim scholars even held that there is nothing wrong in appointing a woman to the position of a judge, though there may be a inclination to doubt the woman’s fitness for the post due to her more emotional nature. Thus it is clear that the status of woman in Islam is quite high and realistically suitable to her nature. Her rights and duties are comparable to those of man but not necessarily or absolutely the same with them. If she is deprived of one thing in some aspect, she is fully compensated for it with more things in many other aspects. The fact that she belongs to the female sex has no bearing on her human status or independent personality, and it is no ground for justification of prejudice against her or injustice to her person. Islam gives her as much as is required of her. Her rights match beautifully with her duties. The rights are balanced by her duties and no side overweighs the other. Works Cited: Gruver, Kathleen E.; Jones, Trevelyn E.; Toth, Luann; Charnizon, Marlene; Grabarek, Daryl; Raben, Dale. Women in Islam. School Library Journal, Jun2005, Vol. 51 Issue 6, p187-187. Jafar, Afshan. Women, Islam, and the State in Pakistan, Gender Issues, Winter2005, Vol. 22 Issue 1, p35-55. Quoc-Benjamin, Nguyen Tang Le Huy. Women, Democracy and Islam, UN Chronicle, Dec2004-Feb2005, Vol. 41 Issue 1, p38-39. Wollaston, Isabel. Women in Islam. Reviews in Religion Theology, Sep2000, Vol. 7 Issue 4, p438. Sirriyeh, Elizabeth. The Rights of Women in Islam, Journal of Beliefs Values: Studies in Religion Education, Oct99, Vol. 20 Issue 2, p261. The interpretation of original Islamic texts paints a far liberal and feminist picture than what is made of it in the centuries to follow. What we see in today’s Islamic world is a lot of injustice to women. Women are oppressed under the false pretense of upholding Islamic virtue. The present system â€Å"keeps people locked in roles that stunt their growth and unjustly penalizes women who would exercise their rights†. Indeed, if true Islam were to be implemented many injustices against women could be prevented – rapists won’t go free, victims .

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Example

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Example Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Post Traumatic Stress Disorder General Purpose: To Inform Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about PTSD Thesis Statement: We hear about it in the news, papers, and small town chatter; be we don’t really understand what it is. It affects the victims mind, body, and people around them; I want to inform you all about this disorder, and what it does. INTRO 1. I am going to say a word and just think about what pops into your head, what do you associate it with? PTSD. A. How about anger, irritability and emotional detachment? . Anger, unexplained irritability, and emotional detachment are the most common traits of PTSD. 2. These are common because of the high level of stress that is put on the suffering person. B. I wanted to talk to you all today about PTSD because it is a part of my life, and talking about it helps myself and others better understand and cope with it. 3. Having been in the marines for five years now, and two deployments later, I have noticed a lot of changes in me both physically and mentally. 4. Many changes are very good ones that I welcome with open arms, like being in good shape and perspective on life. However, others I wish whole heartedly I could undo. C. PTSD is a disorder that is shrouded in misconceptions. According to Webster the definition is a type of anxiety disorder thats triggered by a traumatic event. Post-traumatic stress disorder can be brought on if you experience or witness an event that causes intense fear, helplessness or horror. It is my wish that you all leave here today with a better understanding of it. BODY #1 2. I have told you all what effects PTSD has, but here is a new question. What causes the disorder? D. Many people think that is only something you get from being in the military and war, the truth is any severely stressful or traumatic situation can trigger this illness. 5. Ever notice how some people are never quite the same after a really bad car wreck, a horrible relationship, or even getting mugged? 6. When I was overseas we took rockets, mortars and small arms fire almost daily, and that took a toll on me and my fellow marines. E. What triggers the anger, flashbacks or unexplained adrenaline rushes? 7. Just about anything can set these off, getting startled, hearing an unexpected boom or gunshot etc etc. 8. An example of this I went out riding with a couple friends on the fourth of July this year, and my friend Dennis was right in front of me. We was going through a town and someone set off a large bottle rocket, the kind that screams before it explodes. He turned his brand new Harley to get away from the sound so fast that I don’t know how he didn’t lay it down. I asked him why he did that, I was wearing a full face helmet and didn’t hear it, and the look in his eyes told me that he wasn’t on highway 121. His mind was back in the Helmand Province, Afghanistan when an RPG flew only 5 feet away from his head while he was in a gun trucks turret. F. That being said how can you help someone in a situation like this? Well you have two choices. 9. You can leave them alone, just let them be and they will come back on their own. The second choice is to grab hold of them, and tell them who they are, where they are, and what they are doing, just give them reassurance and comfort. 0. I chose the second option, I took of my helmet and sunglasses and took the glasses off his face and looked him in the eyes and said, â€Å"Dennis do you know where you are? What are you doing? Dennis its ok man you’re in Illinois it’s the fourth of July we are out on our July ride that we do every year. You’re ok man just breath deep. â⠂¬  After doing all that he came back and was just really shaken up. BODY #2 3. For me, the most daunting trait of PTSD is the emotional detachment that I mentioned before. G. You might be asking, emotional detachment? What do you mean by that? 1. When a traumatic event is experienced it is easier for the mind to just block it out and deal with it later because it doesn’t know how to cope. Therein lies the problem you become numb and unfeeling. 12. When your mind blocks it out, it is essentially just shutting down your emotions like a light switch. However, it doesn’t know when to turn it back on. It could be days, weeks, months or even years before your mind will allow you to be capable of emotions again. H. The emotional aspect of PTSD can cause a number of issues in the life of the suffering person. 13. When a person becomes unable to feel emotions anymore things and people that once were extremely important become minute. 14. It can cause a rift to form in the family, in relationships and among the friends. I. The only way that this issue can be resolved is surprisingly by what we all used to do as little kids, pretend. 15. In a recent session at my Veterans Affairs clinic I was told that basically one has to pretend to care about everyone and everything around them. 16. You do that and then it eventually becomes second nature to care and feel again for what matters to the individual BODY #3 . Another hardship of the disorder is the constant state of being â€Å"on guard†. J. For some service members, their deployment is in such a bad section of the world that you are forced to constantly lookout for any hidden dangers. 17. What I mean by this is like when you’re on a convoy, it doesn’t matter what your job is in the truck. Whether it’s the driver, navig ator, gunner or just a passenger you are searching the area outside looking for danger or threats like IEDs’ or holes that the truck could roll over into or enemy combatants. 18. Even when you are on base and ‘inside the wire’ you maintain that constant state of awareness. K. After being on alert for so long physical and mental exhaustion sets in and your body starts to dole out small amounts of adrenaline to keep you going. 19. The good thing about this is when your body naturally uses the adrenaline you can stay awake, alert, and focused better than the average person. 20. However, this has a down side. Some people unknowingly become addicted to it and can’t function very well without it. So your mind continues to pump this drug into your system in small amounts. L. This is why a person with PTSD would get startled and over react so easily. 21. When the average Joe Schmo gets startled only a small amount of adrenaline gets put into the blood stream. 22. Since the service member has become dependent on it and it is already in the blood stream, a much larger amount of the drug is released and sends the person into that mood of, ‘let’s go, I’m ready’. M. Everybody here knows that when you get really amped up your heart starts to race, and you breathe a lot faster and there is always someone telling you to take a deep breath and just calm down. Does anyone know why you’re supposed to do that? 23. When your heart races and you breathe faster like that it’s because you have more oxygen than carbon dioxide in your system. 24. By slowing down your breathing you will put more carbon dioxide into your blood stream. This will force your body to relax; long exhales will force the body’s natural relaxation process and pump more oxygen to the brain so it can perform better. CONCLUSION 5. So far I have presented to all of you a disorder that is very misconstrued; but well known to the masses. It has affected an extremely large percentage of us Americans, but is still almost considered taboo to talk about it. It is also still an unchartered territory as far as psychological research goes. N. Treatment for this is very limited still to only counseling sessions, prescription drugs, and the all time favorite of every stubborn person with a problem, just dealing with it. 25. I have explained to you all what PTSD is, its causes, its traits, and the effects it has on the afflicted individual. 26. It is my true hope that you all have learned more about this disorder, and walk away today with an enlightened point of view.

Personal Statment Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Statment - Personal Statement Example I had the experience of selling and marketing various items and acting as a middle seller. Items like MP3 player, second hand bikes and fashion watches earned me a fair bit of profit, and I enjoyed doing this work too. This interest of mine led me to the Paldo Advertisement firm, where I learned the basic norms and structure of companies and how the business chain runs. Before starting to work in the Paldo Advertisement firm, I was in the military services. It might look a bit unusual, to switch from military and end up being a businessperson, but that is how my life goes. My time in the military service too, was quite fascinating, with many ups and downs every day. I learned the skills of dealing with the worst situation and predicting future circumstances. I think these skills will help me throughout my life, even in daily matters and systematic planning of my decisions. Later, my interest in business planning and finance developed further, due to my passion towards the stock market, and in learning factors, which affects the market share of a company. This was a decisive moment when I realized that I can trade effectively in stocks, and more importantly, I loved doing it. For those who have been in the stock market, would know the complexity and sensitivity in buying and selling stocks. There are various factors and figures that are needed to be considered before a person can predict the rise or fall of a stock (Alexandar). After my work at the Paldo Advertisement firm, I did some home trading in the stock market from my home. There was a significant difference in my feelings and emotions, when I was studying stock market and then when I started doing myself. The more I got into the stock market, trading stocks and predicting which to buy and which to sell, the more my interest in it kept on building. To be a master in the field, I needed to

An examination of employee retention strategy in Ramsay Health Care UK Dissertation

An examination of employee retention strategy in Ramsay Health Care UK - Dissertation Example According to the studies of Lee (2006); Raub and Streit (2006); Stovel and Bontis (2002) have numerously linked employee turnover and also employee retention to recruitment source. The focus of the present study is to consider the efficacy of employee retention system in Ramsay health care. Employee Retention Practices of Employee Retention Employee Turnover: Theoretical Framework: Current Retention Strategy: The organization under investigation, which is Ramsay Health Care UK, has a retention strategy which includes rewards that mainly consists of non-financial rewards. These rewards includes 75% medical aid support, subsidized food, housing loans, educational support program, uniforms and transport allowances to the lower level employees. Ramsay Health Care UK offers 100% medical aid support, subsidized food, allowances for transport and housing, fuel, car of company, education and housing loans and cell phones of company as well as bonuses on holidays for high level employees. Apa rt from these all retention packages, Ramsay Health Care UK is offering a strategic recruitment program in which they are sponsoring students with an undertaking that students benefitted from the program will work for Ramsay Health Care UK after the completion of their studies for the number of years the sponsorship lasted. In case, a student who has received sponsorship for 5years then he will have to work for the organization for at least five years then he can look for an alternative job elsewhere. As a part of retention program of Ramsay Health Care UK, there is a promotion within Ramsay that foster decent succession proposal and also encourages the employees to form a life-long career in Ramsay Health Care UK. This act will also bring loyalty and constancy amongst the employees. Significance of the Study The significance of the study is that that the selected topic is not as popular in such type of the organizations. Usually we relate medical centers with surgeons, doctors, num ber of beds, facilities, operation theatres, etc. but this study moves around a neglected issue of a medical center that can eventually play a vital role in the performance of a medical center and whose enormous magnitude can move a performance graph from bottom to top or top to bottom. This issue is related with the ones who run the medical center i.e. the employees. This study goes deep into the issues of employee turnover and the employee retention strategy. The causes of employee turnover at Ramsay Health Care are explored; the current retention practices have been examined, the effectiveness of the retention practices have also been determined and the study is concluded on a workable retention strategy, that can reduce the rate of employee turnover in the Ramsay Health Care if applied. This study will help to improve the already existing strategies in the organization and will also facilitate other relevant fields and organizations to improve their employee retention strategies . This study will also help the administration of the organization to identify the causes of turnover rate of employees and provide them an insight to overcome those causes and factors which are creating hindrance in employee retention practices. This study may lend a hand to the organization to have a strong and healthy milieu, as the health care units need to have a calm and peaceful

A Problem Critical to the Education in the 21st Century Essay Example for Free

A Problem Critical to the Education in the 21st Century Essay In the 21st century I believe that inequitable opportunity is the most critical education problem. Inequitable opportunity impacts people of different racial backgrounds in various ways. It limits the knowledge a student receives, the rate at which they learn, funds available to the school, the students ability to succeed in the workforce upon graduating, it even affects the knowledge or lack of knowledge a student learns at home. Though this may affect the teaching staff in ways, minorities from a lower income family are the ones impacted most. These students often fail because they are not prepared for success. Students from a lower social class have fewer resources available to them; therefore they do not make it to the top. Schools in poverty stricken areas receive less funding, and this severely impacts the students. The school is unable to provide students with up to date technology, and the resources needed to compete with their peers from more privileged backgrounds. The school will not be able to provide ESL classes for Latino students. Students will more than likely drop out; the ones who actually manage to graduate will probably be less qualified to perform essential job duties. These students will not be as knowledgeable because they may be using outdated texts, and they are not able to learn how to fully utilize technology needed to survive in today’s workforce. Schools that are in a low income neighborhood do not have modern buildings, the school buildings are very out dated. The air conditioning and heating may not be working properly creating a very uncomfortable learning environment. This may discourage students from wanting to go to school and it definitely does not attract quality faculty. Another issue that impacts the student severely is the lack of parent participation in the education process. This is crucial to the development of the child from a very early age; it is imperative that a parent be involved in preparing their child for life, as well as reinforcing things learned at school. Education starts at home and moves to the public arena where social interaction, behavior skills and knowledge are enhanced. Poor parent participation may be the result of work schedules, transportation issues, language barriers, or suitable clothing. Once again children from low- income families suffer the most. Both parents may have to work just to pay the bills, and in some situations there is just one parent, forcing some students to help care of siblings at after school when they should be focusing on homework or studying. As the child ages less attention will be paid to the individual as class size increases, the number of teachers increase with diverse classes, and overall s ize of the school grows. At this point the child will need extra help completing assignments and requiring encouragement to continue the education process consistently and for the duration through some college. The parent is not exempt from the learning process because of inadequacy or exempt because of poor education. As briefly mentioned earlier, in this setting the teaching staff is likely to be under qualified, once again this impacts the student. By the teaching staff not being qualified the type of skill the students will learn will not be up to par. Classroom Managers should also be aware of how they are engaging their students. They should have high expectations of all of their students. There seems to be a lot of racial stereotyping in minority communities. Teachers should know that all Asian students aren’t smart and that all African American students inferior learners. If teachers establish a high expectation of learning from all of their students and expect all of their students to do well then those expectations will be seen by the student. Students are then able to work at their highest potential and are not limited; a teacher should believe that all students are capable of learning at a higher level. The teacher of the 21st Century need to be more culturally responsible and they need to be more aware of what is going on in the classroom. Educators need to be trained in a way that is going to be more beneficial to the educational process as a whole. For example if a teacher has a classroom where the majority of the students are not being successful then that teacher and/ or teaching techniques should be reevaluated. The classroom is not a place where a student is just given work to perform and the teacher is detached, the classroom of the 21st century needs to be an interactive classroom where teachers and students comes together to share ideas, and engage each other in the learning process. Unless a Teacher can step out of the conventional box and begin to assess themselves and what they actually bring to the classroom, it will not evolve. Teachers should interact with students on a more personal level in the classroom and get to know their students as individuals; some children can get lost in the classroom for a number of reasons; including personal problems at home, and learning disabilities. By being involved more with the student’s teachers are better to adapt to a student that is having problems because they are unable to read well, or a student that is simply having problems seeing the board. Without establishing some type of a relationship with the children it is very hard for a teacher to recognize the problems students are having and how to effectively deal with these problems. Just because a student is unable to keep up with fashion, technology receives free lunch does not mean that this student does not have the ability or the will to learn. There are successful people that grew up in poverty, and have gained success through hard work and education. Everyone should have the same opportunity to receive quality education. Students are taught that education is the key to success, so how can one succeed when the education is not equal to their peers, the ones they will be competing against for their spot in the future. Education is the poor man’s dream to a better life. With minorities and Latinos making up a large amount of students in school the effects of inequitable opportunities has a larger impact on them. Students who come from an inferior social-economic level are just as motivated as students who come from a higher social class. You have Latinos who hardly speak English and are attending schools that are incapable of accommodating them; therefore they do not earn a degree and are forced to take a low paying job. â€Å"Status† may have an impact on a student in a social environment, but in the educational system this should not be a factor. The students from a lower social class are being prepared for failure, while the students from a higher social class are being prepared for success. In the 21st century I believe that inequitable opportunity is the most critical education problem. Recognizing the problem is the first step, however we as a society need to find solution on how to better level the playing field in the educational comm unity in order to make schools work for everyone. One thing we can to is to not only encourage proper funding for schools in low income areas but to also make sure that this funding get appropriated to do what is needed in order to make sure that the children have a proper learning environment. Bills and referendums continue to be passed in education s in order to make sure that schools are up to par but sometimes this money does not get to the prosper schools. Some schools get new buildings and a/c systems while other schools just get paint. We need to come together to demand to our elected officials that something be done about the conditions of certain schools. We need to make sure that these school schools have the materials that they need in order for them to produce successful students. Books need to be provided to every student not only in class but also at home as a reference for homework and studying. Computers need to be provided in these schools so that the students don’t fall behind on technology and become inferior to their peers. We elect these officials and we need to demand that they begin to look out for the betterment of our schools. We should go online and see how they are voting on the issues that affect us. If they are not pushing the type of educational reform that we need in our communities and in our school then we need to elect someone who will. Parents need to become more involved in their students learning. We must understand that a lot of parents are working, and most low income households are being led by a single parent; we need to find a way to get these parents involved to help their children so that they don’t continue to fall behind. Even if it’s just educating them on the process of following up with their elected officials and making sure they vote and their vote counted and is heard. Opening up the schools for parent participation and PTO and PTA meeting on a weekend rather than on a school night would make it easier for parents to become more involved. Also, schools could try social networking, and sending up dates to parents Facebook or Twitter pages to keep them up on what’s going on in the schools. This is a new era and the American household has changed and the educational sytem needs to keep up in order to keep these parents involved and up to date on what’s going in their child’s school. Teacher also need to be developed in the classroom and become more responsible for what is going on and have high expectations for all of their students. This will ensure that all student as are working to their best ability to learn. This can be done by giving existing teachers additional training and giving new teachers the training they need to be successful in the 21st century classroom.

Malcolm X - Changes in Malcolm’s Perspective of White People Essay

Malcolm X - Changes in Malcolm’s Perspective of White People Malcolm X was one of the primary religious leaders and reformers of the 1960, where he fought for and ultimately gave his life for racial equality in the United States. His father was a reverend who believed in self-determination and worked for the unity of black people. Throughout Malcolm’s life he was treated horribly by white people, hence shaping his misconceptions of all white people and developing his strong belief in black separatism. It wasn’t until years later where he embraced his black identity and discovered all races could live and work together for a common goal, brotherhood. Malcolm X was born Malcolm Little on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska. Malcolm’s father believed in self-determination and worked for the unity of black people. Malcolm was raised in a background of ethnic awareness and dignity, but violence was started by white racists trying to prevent black people from succeeding. From the very beginning, even though Malcolm had not discovered his black identity, he had a very clear picture of what it meant to be black in the United States. As a young child, Malcolm, his parents, brothers, and sisters were shot at, harassed, threatened and burned out of their home. One of Malcolm’s earliest memories was when the KKK set his family’s house on fire as the â€Å"white police and fireman stood around and watched our house burn to the ground† (p.3). This type of racism ultimately led to the demise...

Mini Project

CONTENTS 1| ABSTRACT| | 2| ABBREVIATION| | 3| INTRODUCTION TO NC AND CNC| 4| 4| HISTORY| 7| 5| CNC SYSTEM ELEMENTS| 10| 6| WORING ON CNC MACHINES| | 7| BASIC CONCEPTS OF PART PROGRAMMING| 16| 8| TYPES OF CNC MACHINES| 18| 9| PROPERTIES OF CNC MACHINES| 20| 10| DRILLING AND TAPPING ON CNC| 35| 11| APPLICATIONS OF CNC MACHINES| 49| 12| ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CNC| 51| 13| CONCLUSION| 52| LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO 1| Hydrotel Milling Machine| 5| 2| Chiron CNC Machine| 5| 3| CNC Lathe Machine| 6| | CNC elements block diagram| 10 | 5| Point to Point tool path| 11| 6| Contour Tool Path| 12| 7| Continuous path tool movements| 18| 8| Continuous path controllers| 19| 9 | Schematic Illustrations of components(a)An open loop(b)A closed loop control| 19| 10| CNC Lathe| 21| 11| CNC Grinders| 21| 12| CNC Drilling| 22| 13| CNC Boring machine| 22| 14| Electrical Discharge Machines (EDM)| 23| 15| Laser cutting machine tools| 23| 16| Flat bed CNC Lathe| 25| 7| Slant bed CNC Lathe| 25| 18| CNC To ol Turrent| 26| | | | | | | | | | | | | 28| Different tools in Drilling machines| 26| 20| Tool Holders| 27| 21| CNC with Fanuc control| 28| 22| CNC setter| 29| 23| Override Speed setter| 31| 24| CNC Backlash| 32| 25| Sensitive Drilling machine| 37| 26| Radial drilling machine| 38| 27| Up-right Drilling machine| 38| 28| Drill materials| 39| 29| Tool nomenclature| 40| 30| Tool holding devices| 41| 31| Various operations of drilling machines| 42| 32| Counter Boring| 43| 33| Counter sunk| 43| 34| Spot Facing| 43| 35| Hands Taps| 46| 36| Holding Devices| 48| 7| Types of Clamps and C- Clamps| 49| 38| Products used in Aerospace Industry| 49| 39| 5 Axis CNC Milling machine| 50| 3. INTRODUCTION TO NC AND CNC Numerical control  (NC) refers to the  automation  of  machine tools  that are operated by programmed commands encoded on a storage medium, controlled manually via hand wheels or levers, or mechanically automated via cams alone. The first NC machines were built in the 1940s and 1950s. These early servomechanisms were rapidly augmented with analog and digital computers, creating the modern  computer numerical control  (CNC) machine tools that have revolutionized the  machining  processes.The program is translated into the appropriate electrical signals for input to motors that run the machine. A CNC machine is an numerical control machine with the added feature of an on board computer. The computer is referred to as the machine control unit (MCU). In modern CNC systems, component design is highly automated using  computer-aided design  (CAD) and  computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) programs. The programs produce a computer file that extracts the commands needed to operate a particular machine, and then loaded into the CNC machines for production.Since any component might require the use of a number of different tools-drills, saws, etc. , modern machines often combine multiple tools into a single â€Å"cell†. The Evolution of NC It was i n 1947 when numerical control was born. It began when John C. Parsons of the Parsons Corporation, Traverse City, Michigan, a manufacturer of helicopter rotor blades, could not make his templates fast enough. So, he invented a way of coupling computer equipment with a jig borer. Mr. Parsons used punched cards to operate his digit Ron system. 1949 was the year of another â€Å"Urgent need†. The U. S.Air Material command realized that parts for its planes and missiles were becoming more complex. Also, as the designs were constantly being improved, changes in the drawing were frequently made. Thus, in their search for methods of faster production, an Air Force study contract was awarded to the Parsons Corporation. The servo mechanisms laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) was the subcontractor. In 1951, MIT took over the complete job, and in 1952, the prototype of today’s NC machine, a modified Cincinnati Hydrotel Milling Machine, was successfully d emonstrated.The numerical control was originated at MIT. Fig:1 Fig:2 CNC MACHINES CNC stands for Computer Numerically Controlled. CNC refers to how a machine operates, that is, its basic method of controlling movement, e. g. , a CNC machine uses a stream of digital information (code) from a computer to move motors and other positioning systems in order to guide a spindle or other tooling over raw material. A CNC machine uses mathematics and coordinate systems to understand and process information about what to move, to where, and how fast.Most CNC machines are able to move in three controlled directions at once. These directions are called axes and are given simple names such as X, Y and Z (based on the Cartesian Co-ordinate System). The X axis is always the longest distance a machine or a part of a machine must travel. X may be the movement from front to back, Y the movement from left to right, and the Z is almost always vertical movement (normally the spindle’s positioning movement up and down). Superior Machinery sells many types of CNC Machines, from CNC Horizontals, CNC Verticals to CNC Lathes; they have over 182 CNC Machines to choose from.A CNC machine must be able to communicate with itself to operate. A computer numeric control unit sends position commands to motors. The motors must talk back to the control that, indeed, they have acted correctly to move the machine a given distance. The ability of CNC machines to move in three (or more) directions at once allows them to create almost any desired pattern or shape. All of this processing happens very fast, accurately and consistently. 4. HISTORY Fig:3 In 1775, John Wilkinson- cannon boring machine (lathe). In 1881, Eli Whitney- milling machine. In 1947, Mr.John Parsons began experimenting for using 3-axis curvature data to control the machine tool motion for the production for aircraft components. In 1949, parsons- first NC machine. In 1951, MIT was involved in the project. In 1955, after refine ments NC became available in industry . Today, modern machineries are CNC milling machines and lathes. CNC technology was developed in the United States in the 1950? s for the US Air Force by metalworking machine tool builders. It was a major advance in the ability of machines to faithfully reproduce complex part machining steps more accurately without human intervention or variability.Numerical control (NC) refers to the automation of machine tools that are operated by abstractly programmed commands encoded on a storage medium, as opposed to manually controlled via handwheels or levers, or mechanically automated via cams alone. The first NC machines were built in the 1940s and 1950s, based on existing tools that were modified with motors that moved the controls to follow points fed into the system on punched tape. These early servomechanisms were rapidly augmented with analog and digital computers, creating the modern computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools that have revolut ionized the machining processes.In modern CNC systems, end-to-end component design is highly automated using computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) programs. The programs produce a computer file that is interpreted to extract the commands needed to operate a particular machine via a postprocessor, and then loaded into the CNC machines for production. Since any particular component might require the use of a number of different tools-drills, saws, etc. , modern machines often combine multiple tools into a single â€Å"cell†.In other cases, a number of different machines are used with an external controller and human or robotic operators that move the component from machine to machine. In either case, the complex series of steps needed to produce any part is highly automated and produces a part that closely matches the original CAD design. Proliferation of CNC The price of computer cycles fell drastically during the 1960s with the widespread introduc tion of useful minicomputers. Eventually it became less expensive to handle the motor control and feedback with a computer program than it was with dedicated servo systems.Small computers were dedicated to a single mill, placing the entire process in a small box. PDP-8? s and Data General Nova computers were common in these roles. The introduction of the microprocessor in the 1970s further reduced the cost of implementation, and today almost all CNC machines use some form of microprocessor to handle all operations. The introduction of lower-cost CNC machines radically changed the manufacturing industry. Curves are as easy to cut as straight lines, complex 3-D structures are relatively easy to produce, and the number f machining steps that required human action have been dramatically reduced. With the increased automation of manufacturing processes with CNC machining, considerable improvements in consistency and quality have been achieved with no strain on the operator. CNC automatio n reduced the frequency of errors and provided CNC operators with time to perform additional tasks. CNC automation also allows for more flexibility in the way parts are held in the manufacturing process and the time required to change the machine to produce different components.During the early 1970s the Western economies were mired in slow economic growth and rising employment costs, and NC machines started to become more attractive. The major U. S. vendors were slow to respond to the demand for machines suitable for lower-cost NC systems, and into this void stepped the Germans. In 1979, sales of German machines surpassed the U. S. designs for the first time. This cycle quickly repeated itself, and by 1980 Japan had taken a leadership position, U. S. sales dropping all the time. Once sitting in the #1 position in terms of sales on a top-ten chart consisting entirely of U. S. ompanies in 1971, by 1987 Cincinnati Milacron was in 8th place on a chart heavily dominated by Japanese firm s. Many researchers have commented that the U. S. focus on high-end applications left them in an uncompetitive situation when the economic downturn in the early 1970s led to greatly increased demand for low-cost NC systems. Unlike the U. S. companies, who had focused on the highly profitable aerospace market, German and Japanese manufacturers targeted lower-profit segments from the start and were able to enter the low-cost markets much more easily. As computing and networking evolved, so did direct numerical control (DNC).Its long-term coexistence with less networked variants of NC and CNC is explained by the fact that individual firms tend to stick with whatever is profitable and their time and money for trying out alternatives is limited. This explains why machine tool models and tape storage media persist in grandfathered fashion even as the state of the art advances. 5. CNC SYSTEM ELEMENTS A typical CNC system consists of the following six elements. 1 Part program 2 Program inpu t device 3 Machine control unit 4 Drive system 5 Machine tool 6 Feedback system Fig:4 6. WORKING OF CNC MACHINES:CNC machines are Controlled by G and M codes. These are number values and co-ordinates. Each number or code is assigned to a particular operation. Typed in manually to CAD by machine operators. G&M codes are automatically generated by the computer software. The tool or material moves. Tools can operate in 1-5 axes. Larger machines have a machine control unit (MCU) which manages operations. Movement is controlled by a motor (actuators). Feedback is provided by sensors (transducers) Closed loop. Tool magazines are used to change tools automatically. Tool Paths and Cutting   Motions:Tool paths describe the route the cutting tool takes. Motion can be described as point to point, or contouring. Speeds are the rate at which the tool operates e. g. rpm. Feeds are the rate at which the cutting tool and work piece move in relation to each other. Expressed in IPM (inches per minu te) Feeds and speeds are determined by cutting depth, material and quality of finish needed. e. g . harder materials need slower feeds and speeds. Rouging cuts remove larger amounts of material than finishing cuts. Rapid traversing allows the tool or work piece to move rapidly when no machining is taking place.Fig:6 Point to Point Tool path Fig:5Contour ToolPath 1. Point to Point tool paths cut following lines 2. Contour tool paths cut follow surfaces Linear Interpolation: (Point to Point) Linear interpolation consist of a programmed point linked together by straight line Fig:7 Circular Interpolation: (Contour) Circular interpolation is the process of programming arcs and circles. Circular interpolation requires endpoints, a feed rate, a center, a radius, and a direction of movement. Block of Information: When running, a part program is interpreted one command line at a time until all lines are completed.Fig:8 N001 G01 X1. 2345 Y. 06789 MO3 N001:Represents the sequence number of the operation G01: Represents linear operation (tool movement) X12345: Will move the tool or table 1. 2345 in. a positive direction along the X axis Y6789:Will move the tool or table 0. 6789 in. along the Y axis M03:Turns spindle on clockwise Commands, which are also referred to as blocks, are made up of words which each begin with a letter address and end with a numerical value. Each letter address relates to a specific machine function. â€Å"G† and â€Å"M† letter addresses O-Program number (Used for program identification)N-Sequence number (Used for line identification) G-Preparatory function X-X axis designation Y-Y axis designation Z-Z axis designation R-Radius designation F-Feed rate designation S-Spindle speed designation H-Tool length offset designation D-Tool radius offset designation T-Tool Designation M-Miscellaneous function G- CODES (Preparatory Functions) which cause some movement of the machine table or head. G00 – Rapid Movement G01- Linear Interpo lation (movement) G02- Circular Interpolation, CW G03- Circular Interpolation, CCW G17 -XY Plane,G18- XZ Plane,G19 -YZ Plane G20/G70 -Inch unitsG21/G71 -Metric Units G40- Cutter compensation cancel G41 -Cutter compensation right G43- Tool length compensation (plus) G43- Tool length compensation (plus) G44- Tool length compensation (minus) G49-Tool length compensation cancel G80-Cancel canned cycles G81-Drilling cycle G82-Counter boring cycle G83-Deep hole drilling cycle G90-Absolute positioning G91- Incremental positioning M-CODES (Miscellaneous) which turn ON or OFF different functions M00 -Program stop M01 -Optional program stop M02 -Program end M03- Spindle on clockwise M04 -Spindle on counterclockwise M05- Spindle stop M06- Tool change . BASIC CONCEPTS OF PART PROGRAMMING Part programming contains geometric data about the part and motion information to move the cutting tool with respect to the worpiece. Basically, the machine receives instructions as a sequence of blocks contain ing commands to set machine parameters; speed, feed and other relevant information. A block is equivalent to a line of codes in a part program. N135 G01 X1. 0 Y1. 0 Z0. 125 T01 F5. 0 These define: N135-Block number G01-G codes X1. 0, Y1. 0, Z0. 125-Coordinates T01-Tool number F5. 0-Special function Programming Methods Automatically Programmed Tools (APT):A text based system in which a programmer defines a series of lines, arcs, and points which define the overall part geometry locations. These features are then used to generate a cutter location (CL) file. Computer Aided Machining (CAM) Systems-Computer Aided Design (CAD) Systems: CAD/CAM systems allow for rapid development and modifying of designs and documentation. The 3D geometric model produced becomes a common element for engineering analysis (FEA), machining process planning (including CNC part programming, documentation (including engineering drawings), quality control, and so on.Drives of CNC machine tool Hydraulic actuator – high power machine tool Stepping motor – small machine due to limited power and torque DC motor – excellent speed regulation, high torque, most widely used. 8. PROPERTIES OF CNC MACHINES Based on Motion Type: Motion control – the heart of CNC: Point-to-Point or Continuous path Based on Control Loops: Open loop or Closed loop Based on Power Supply: Electric or Hydraulic or Pneumatic Based on Positioning System: Incremental or Absolute Point-to-Point Tool Movements: Point-to-point control systems cause the tool to that point only.The tool is not in continuous contact with the part while it is moving. Examples: drilling, reaming, punching, boring and tapping. Fig:9 Continuous-Path Tool Movements : Continuous-path controllers cause the tool to maintain continuous contact with the part as the tool cuts a contour shape. These operations include milling along any lines at any angle, milling Fig:10 Arcs and lathe turning. Loop Systems for Controlling Tool Movem ent: Schematic illustration of the components of (a) an open-loop and (b) a closed-loop control system for a CNC machine. 9. TYPES OF CNC MACHINES * Lathe Machine * Milling Machine Drilling Machine -The bench drill -The pillar drill * Boring Machine * Grinding Machine CNC Mills: These machining centers use computer controls to cut different materials. They are able to translate programs consisting of specific number and letters to move the spindle to various locations and depths. Used to make 3D prototypes, moulds, cutting dies, printing plates and sights. CNC Lathes: They cut metal that is often turning at fast speeds. CNC lathes are able to make fast ,precision cuts using Indexable tools and drills with complicated programs. Normally, they cannot be cut on manual lathes.They often include 12 tool holder sand coolant pumps to cut down on tool wear. Fig:11 CNC Grinders: Grinding metal process uses a coated wheel that slowly removes metal to create a part. Through the years, grinding was done on a manual machine, but with the advent of CNC technology, the grinding process has advanced . Fig:12 CNC DRILLING: Drilling is commonly used for mass production. The drilling machine (drilling press) is used to create or enlarge holes. The bench drill: For drilling holes through raw materials such as wood, plastic and metal The pillar drill: A larger version that stands upright on the floor.As the bench drill, it can be used to drill larger pieces of materials and produce bigger holes. Fig:13 CNC Boring: Process of enlarging an existing hole or internal cylindirical surface. This can be accomplished on a lathe or a machine tool specifically designed for the process, such as a horizontal boring machine. Fig:14 Electrical Discharge Machines (EDM): Wire EDM machines utilize a very thin wire (. 0008 to . 012in. ) as an electrode. The wire is stretched between diamond guides and carbide that conduct current to the wire and cuts the part like a band saw.Material is removed by the erosion caused by a spark that moves horizontally with the wire. Fig:15 Laser Cutting Machines: The machine utilizes an intense beam of focused laser light to cut the part. Material under the beam experiences a rapid rise in temperature and is vaporized. Laser cuts with a minimum of distortion, no mechanical cutting forces. Specific tools to perform different Operations: Fig:16Fig:17 CNC lathe machine tool turret is part of the CNC machine where all tooling is mounted. CNC lathe tool turret has an integral Disk like part (Tool turret disk) on which all the tools are mounted.CNC lathe tool turret is mounted on the x-axis carriage. Fig:18 Slant Bed CNC Lathe / Flat Bed CNC Lathe On some CNC lathe machines x-axis carriage with the tool turret is located behind the spindle (such cnc lathe machines are called  slant bed cnc lathe machines) and on other cnc lathe it is located at the front (as normal lathe machines) such cnc lathe machines are called  flat bed cnc lathe machine. T he below is a Slant Bed CNC Lathe Machine. Fig:19 Fig:20 CNC Lathe Tool Turret Tool Capacity: Tool capacity for cnc lathe machines varies machine to machine.Small CNC lathe machines normally comes with a tool turret capacity of 4 or 8 tools stations. Bigger and  heavy CNC lathe machines tool turrets are big and heavy and accordingly will hold more tools such as 12 or more. Fig:21 Tool Holder: Tool holder is the actual part which fastens   the tool to the cnc lathe tool turret Disk. Tool holder size also depends upon the cnc lathe tool turret size, heavy CNC late machine tool turret comes with with big bore for tool holders such as 50 mm diameter. For the small tool turret this might be 40 mm diameter or, less to suit the tool to hold.Fig:22 CNC Lathe Tool Turret Rotation CNC lathe tool turret rotates with the cnc program commands. Normally a letter â€Å"T† is used to call a tool in the working position. The tool rotation is dependent on cnc lathe machine. Some cnc lathe tool turret rotate in one direction (CW or CCW ). Some cnc lathe tool turret rotates both directions, such tool turret direction is optimized for the nearest tool station. Some cnc lathe give full control over tool call up, you can call by optimized direction or you can call tool by rotating tool turret by CW direction or CCW.Tool Offset in CNC Lathe with Fanuc Control Fig:23 There are variety of cnc machines in the market, and almost every cnc machine in a  cnc workshop  has different kind of cnc machine controls if controls are not different they might have different versions of the same cnc machine control. As the operating of different cnc machines controls is very much different from one another the same way  Tool Offsetting  is very much different. Here I will discuss the cnc tool measurement on Fanuc. Tool Offset Setting on Fanuc TCSome cnc machines has some kind of built-in mechanism of tool-offsetting, this built-in mechanisn of tool-offsetting makes adding new tool s are changing existing tools a breeze, because you just tie-up the tool in the tool-post on the  cnc machine tool-turret  and just perform the procedure the cnc machine manufacture has given in the cnc machine operating and setting manual. The  Fanuc  controls such as Fanuc TC has this capability, Just tie up tool in the tool turret and perform a simple procedure and everything is done. The tool offsetting procedure might be different from version to version, But on Fanuc TC this procedure is simple as under.For tool offsetting of a new tool just tie up the tool in the tool post and in  MDI (Manual Data Input) Mode  call up the tool in the working position by entering the command T1, the T is for tool call up and 1 is tool number if you have your tool on another position you might change that with that tool number. Now change the cnc machine to Jog Mode and touch the tool cutting point to the finished component (already gripped in cnc machine jaws) face and bring the To ol-Geometry page and enter under the tool number the command MZ0 this command will clear any previous values and will measure the current tool’s tool-offset in Z-axis.Now touch the tool to a  known-diameter  on the component and again in the tool-geometry page enter the command MX50 you can enter the measured diameter value instead of 50. This way now we have calculated the tool-measurement on the Fanuc TC cnc machine control. CNC Dry Run Invaluable Tool for CNC Setter: Fig:24 It shows the power and the flexibility the cnc machine manufacturers and cnc control manufacturers give a  cnc machine setter  by integrating the Dry Run  on cnc machines. On some cnc machines the Dry Run is added as a  CNC Machine Mode  like Fanuc.On Fanuc cnc control you just select the Dry Run mode and cnc machine is now in Dry Run Mode. Introduction of Dry Run for CNC Machines Setting a new component on a cnc machine is not an easy job. You have to go through many important tasks like cnc machine zero offsetting (cnc machine shift value setting),tool offsetting of tools  used on cnc machine etc. Now if you have completed these all tasks, now comes the time to run the cnc program for the first time, A really crucial and time consuming cnc task. A small negligence might be cause of an accident on cnc machine (tool breakage etc. . To make the first run easy and safe the cnc machine manufacturers and cnc control manufacturers provide us a way by which we can easily control the tools feed with  feed override. So now the cnc setter is a bit easy because he can now run all the tools with a  Safe Feed. Now cnc setter easily can lower the tool feed when he feels the tool is entering a bit danger zone, and easily can increase the tool feed (to a rapid feed) when the tool is away from the component (so the time not go wasted with lower feed when tool is away from component).In Dry Run all the cnc blocks whether those are starting with G00 or G01 and other  G-code  like G02/G03 run with the same feed, which is controlled through Feed Override. On Fanuc the feed override is controlled through  Handwheel  after feed override button press, and there also exists a Rapid Feed Button which if pressed during Dry Run Mode the cnc machine program block will run with Rapid Feed. One point must be cleared for Fanuc control is that feed override also works in  Auto Mode and Single Block Mode  but in such modes the feed override only controls G01/G02/G03 like G-code.But feed override will not control the G00 (Rapid Traverse). But in Dry Run Mode all the cnc program will run with the feed which is controlled through Feed Override. An introduction to cnc machine speed override and feed override controls and safety instructions which must be adhere to while working with cnc machine feed and speed override. CNC Machine Speed Override / Feed Override Introduction Normally you program the speed and feed this way, N10 G97 S1000 G95 F0. 3 Fig:25Now for on e reason or other you want to increase or decrease the speed or feed of the cnc machine  for some time, you definitely have a way to just alter the  cnc machine program, but there is one more suitable solution the Feed Override and Speed Override Controls. The feed override and speed override are  the most suitable and handy way to control the  cnc machine feed and speed through cnc control panel. You control the speed and feed in percentage. When the feed override  is 100% the actually feed  which is programmed will be active.But if the feed override  is 50% then the feed  will decrease by that ratio, now the machine tools will run with 50% of feed. So if you  have programmed 0. 5 mm/rev feed then with 100% the 0. 5 will be active, but for 50%  feed override the actually tool feed will be 0. 25 mm/rev. The same rule applies for speed override, for 100% the actual programmed speed will be active and spindle will revolve  with the actual programmed speed. But  at 50% speed  override the spindle speed will drop by 50%. Feed Override Speed Override Minimum Maximum Values: Normally you can control speed override and feed override from 0% to 120%.At 0% speed override the spindle will stop rotating, and at 0% feed override the tool will stop working ( the tool will be stationary ). No doubt  120% feed  override and speed override is just  safe. But some cnc machines give even more flexibility I  have worked on a cnc machine which has its feed override 0% to 200%. Normal cnc machine has just 0% to 120% feed  override and speed override. Speed Override and Feed Override Safety Precautions Whenever handling the speed override and feed override always think about safety, safety of yourself, tool, machine, component and your surroundings.Never try to use the speed override and feed override if you don’t need it. Because when cnc programs are made the speed and feed is properly set for the machined component. The increase in feed or speed might break insert or even tool. CNC Backlash CNC Troubleshooting, In this category we will see the cnc machine from a different view (cnc machine maintenance), your feedback will really matter, and I hope you will share you knowledge and experience. I will talk about the  CNC  Backlash  which is found in cnc machine axis. * what is cnc backlash, * cnc backlash causes, * when to worry about cnc backlash, how to measure backlash, * How to resolve and compensate cnc backlash through hardware and cnc control software. Fig:26 *What is CNC Backlash? CNC Backlash is any kind of play which is found in cnc machine axis. or you might say, CNC Backlash  is non-movement of the cnc axis which occurs on axis reversal. *Causes of CNC Backlash? This play (backlash) might be due to * Clearance which is kept in mechanical parts to reduce friction. * As mechanical parts get loose with time. * As with time mechanical parts keep moving and rubbing each other and after long time they l ose their actual shape and size. CNC Backlash Is already there A cnc machine axis move due to their  Lead Screw  and  Lead Screw Nut. There is always kept a very minor backlash in the lead screw and lead screw nut to reduce damage and wear. *CNC Backlash When to Worry It is good if your cnc machine axis backlash is near 0. 0001? but not always possible, so 0. 0003? to 0. 0004? is acceptable. But if the amount of play in the lead screw and nut crosses this limit then there is the time to worry, and call up you mechanical maintenance guys. CNC Backlash How to Measure?CNC machine backlash can be measure with a  Dial Indicator  attached to an Adjustable Stand. Put the stand on the cnc bed and direct the needle (plunger) of the dial indicator towards the axis which you want to measure. 1. Set the dial needle to 0. 0mm (zero). 2. Now move the axis in one direction 0. 5mm. Dial indicator should show 0. 5mm travel. 3. Now reverse the same axis 0. 5mm. If your dial indicator now go es back to 0. 0mm, then everything is okay. But otherwise, if on reversal the dial lags behind, then the amount the dial lags behind is the backlash.CNC Backlash How to Resolve? ( Backlash Compensation ) Now you have two choices the hardware way and software way to resolve cnc backlash. You first better choose the hardware way, because normally backlash is due to lead screw or lead screw nut wear, so better resolve the issue by tightening them a bit if they are loose than required, there are plenty of other hardware ways to cope with backlash. CNC controls also give us the ability to control (compensate) cnc backlash through their parameters. CNC Backlash Compensation through CNC Control Parameters How Much Successful?The better advice is that you resolve the issue by changing the lead screw (if possible) or lead screw nut, or just tightening them if they are loose might work, but otherwise CNC control parameters can be changed to compensate backlash, the cnc lathe machine I work on with fanuc control has the 0. 012mm set in its parameters as the backlash compensation for x-axis and z-axis. So such values can be changed to resolve the backlash issue. 10. DRILLING AND TAPPING ON CNC MACHINES Drilling is the operation of producing circular hole in the work-piece by using a rotating cutter called DRILL.The machine used for drilling is called drilling machine. The drilling operation can also be accomplished in lathe, in which the drill is held in tailstock and the work is held by the chuck. The most common drill used is the twist drill. Drilling Machine It is the simplest and accurate machine used in production shop. The work piece is held stationary ie. Clamped in position and the drill rotates to make a hole. Types 1) Based on construction: Portable, Sensitive, Radial, up-right, Gang, Multi-spindle 2) Based on Feed: Hand driven ,Power driven Components of drilling machine:Spindle The spindle holds the drill or cutting tools and revolves in a fixed position in a sleeve. Sleeve The sleeve or quill assembly does not revolve but may slide in its bearing in a direction parallel to its axis. When the sleeve carrying the spindle with a cutting tool is lowered, the cutting tool is fed into the work: and when it’s moved upward, the cutting tool is withdrawn from the work. Feed pressure applied to the sleeve by hand or power causes the revolving drill to cut its way into the work a fraction of an mm per revolution. ColumnThe column is cylindrical in shape and built rugged and solid. The column supports the head and the sleeve or quill assembly. Head The head of the drilling machine is composed of the sleeve, a spindle, an electric motor and feed mechanism. The head is bolted to the column. Worktable The worktable is supported on an arm mounted to the column. The worktable can be adjusted vertically to accommodate different heights of work or it can be swung completely out of the way. It may be tilted up to 90 degree in either direction, to al low long pieces to be end or angle drilled. BaseThe base of the drilling machine supports the entire machine and when bolted to the floor, provides for vibration-free operation and best machining accuracy. The top of the base is similar to the worktable and may be equipped with t- slot for mounting work too larger for the table. Hand Feed The hand- feed drilling machines are the simplest and most common type of drilling machines in use today. These are light duty machine that are operated by the operator, using a feed handled, so that the operator is able to â€Å"feel† the action of the cutting tool as it cuts through the work piece. These drilling machines can be bench or floor mounted.Power feed The power feed drilling machine are usually larger and heavier than the hand feed ones they are equipped with the ability to feed the cutting tool in to the work automatically, at preset depth of cut per revolution of the spindle these machines are used in maintenance for medium du ty work or the work that uses large drills that require power feed larger work pieces are usually clamped directly to the table or base using t –bolts and clamps by a small work places are held in a vise. A depth –stop mechanism is located on the head, near the spindle, to aid in drilling to a precise depth.Sensitive or Bench Drilling Machine * This type of drill machine is used for very light works. Fig. 1 illustrates the sketch of sensitive drilling machine. * The vertical column carries a swiveling table the height of which can be adjusted according to the work piece height. * The table can also be swung to any desired position. * At the top of the column there are two pulleys connected by a belt, one pulley is mounted on the motor shaft and other on the machine spindle. * Vertical movement to the spindle is given by the feed handle by the operator. * Operator senses the cutting action so sensitive drilling machine.Fig:27 Up-Right Drilling Machine * These are medium heavy duty machines. * It specifically differs from sensitive drill in its weight, rigidity, application of power feed and wider range of spindle speed. Fig. 2 shows the line sketch of up-right drilling machine. * This machine usually has a gear driven mechanism for different spindle speed and an automatic or power feed device. * Table can move vertically and radially. * Drill holes up to 50mm Fig:28 Radial Drilling Machine * It the largest and most versatile used for drilling medium to large and heavy work pieces. Radial drilling machine belong to power feed type. * The column and radial drilling machine supports the radial arm, drill head and motor. Fig. 3 shows the line sketch of radial drilling machine. * The radial arm slides up and down on the column with the help of elevating screw provided on the side of the column, which is driven by a motor. * The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and moves on the guide ways provided the radial arm can also be swiveled around the co lumn. * The drill head is equipped with a separate motor to drive the spindle, which carries the drill bit.A drill head may be moved on the arm manually or by power. * Feed can be either manual or automatic with reversal mechanism. Drill Materials The two most common types are 1. HSS drill- Low cost 2. Carbide- tipped drills – high production and in CNC machines Other types are: Solid Carbide drill, TiN coated drills, carbide coated masonry drills, parabolic drills, split point drill. Fig. 4 shows various types of drills. Drill fixed to the spindle Fig:30 Tool Nomenclature: Fig. 31 Nomenclature of twist drill Tool holding devices Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 shows the different work holding and drill drift device.The different methods used for holding drill in a drill spindle are * By directly fitting in the spindle hole. * By using drill sleeve * By using drill socket * By using drill chuck Fig:32 Drilling operations: Operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are * Drillin g * Reaming * Boring * Counter boring * Countersinking * Tapping Drilling: It is an operation by which holes are produced in solid metal by means of revolving tool called ‘Drill’. Fig. 9 shows the various operations on drilling machine. Reaming: Reaming is accurate way of sizing and finishing the pre-existing hole.Multi tooth cutting tool. Accuracy of 0. 005mm can be achieved. Boring: Boring is a process of enlarging an existing hole by a single point cutting tool. Boring operation is often preferred because we can correct hole size, or alignment and can produce smooth finish. Boring tool is held in the boring bar which has the shank. Accuracy of 0. 005mm can be achieved. Fig. 33 Various operations on drilling machine Counter Bore :- This operation uses a pilot to guide the cutting action to accommodate the heads of bolts. Fig. 10 illustrates the counter boring, countersunk and spot facing processes. Countersink:-Special angled cone shaped enlargement at the end of the hole to accommodate the screws. Cone angles of 60 °, 82 °, 90 °, 100 °, 110 °, 120 ° Fig. 34 Counter boring, countersunk and spot facing Drilling  machines are tools that have a rotating, cutting component at one end that bores holes into different materials. There are several types of  drilling  machines that may be used for a wide variety of purposes, including woodworking, construction,  masonry, metalworking, medicine, oil  drilling, and many other fields. Common drills include the hand drill, push drill, pistol-grip drill, hammer drill, and  drill press.In addition to making holes, drills are often used to push screws into wood, metal, plastic, rock, or composites. The hand drill and push drill are both manually operated  drilling  machines that have been largely replaced by power drills. A hand drill works by turning a crank that rotates gears, which cause the chuck to turn. The chuck is the component of the  drilling  machine  that holds the bit, or the end cutting piece. The push drill is a skinny tool resembling a screwdriver with a handle that can be pushed down on a threaded shaft, or a pole with helical ridging.As the handle is pushed down along threading, the shaft, chuck, and bit spins downward, much like pumping a toy metal top. Pistol-grip drills are the most commonly used  drilling  machines. These are corded electric drills that are typically shaped roughly like a pistol, with a trigger switch that starts a motor inside the drill. The motor causes the chuck and bit to spin in continuous revolutions. These drilling  machines may be used to make holes for bolts or other purposes, to push screws into wood, plastic, or other materials, and to bore countersinks.A  countersink  is a screw-shaped hole that is made before the screw is drilled in, preventing splintering or pulling of the plastic or wood around the head of the screw. A pistol-grip drill is also available in a battery-powered, cordless version , though they are usually more expensive. There are many different types of this drill and several indications for use. It is also possible to adapt the drill with an attachment, such as sanding or sawing components. A hammer drill, also called a rotary hammer, is similar to a pistol-grip drill, but also applies a punching motion to complement the rotational action of the bit.This hammering, forward force makes it useful for tougher materials, such as concrete or stone, that standard electric drills cannot cut through. For softer materials, however, the hammer drill may apply excessive force and a standard drill may be a better choice. A drill press is a type of drill that may stand on the floor or be mounted on a workbench. The base of the  machine  is bolted to the table or floor and a column rises up from the base to support the back of the head of the drill. The column also supports a table that can be adjusted in height between the head and the base.The spindle, a metal com ponent that holds the chuck and drill bit, extends downward from the front of the head, parallel to the column. A larger distance between the spindle and column allows wood with a larger width to be drilled. An â€Å"on† switch triggers the spindle to spin and levers attached to the head of the drill press move the spindle and chuck to move up or down. These  drilling  machines are suited for accurate  drilling, because the bit is fixed and the work can be secured to the table with clamps or a vise. ————————————————- Types Of Drill BitsDrill bits are tools used in making cylindrical holes. Various types of drill bits are designed for different uses. Drill bits are equipments or tools that are used in making cylindrical holes. Drill bits can also be referred to as a drilling machine. Drill bits are available in various drill types such as metal drills, gun dril ls, screw machine drills, core drills, step drills, spade drills, forstner drills, masonry drills, dental or surgical drills, wood bits, twist drills, drill blank taper drills and much more. They are designed to cut while doing a clockwise rotating motion. Several drill bits are coolant fed.They contain a channel or hole for directing the coolant fed near to the cutting edges. The split point drill heads of drill bits are used for chip clearance and for excellent centering. Drill bits can also be used in cutting aluminum, general-purpose metals, brass, copper, bronze, ceramic, and plastic, stainless steel, steel, wood, titanium and hardened materials. Various types of drill bits are designed for different uses. Listed below are some types of Drill Bits. Twist Drill: It drills holes in plastic, metal and wood. This drill is currently produced with a width covering a range from 0. 5 millimeters to 100 millimeters while its length is around 1000 millimeters. The most usual twist drill has a tip angle of 118 degrees. This is a proper angle for an extensive array of job. It also has a long series drill for extended length twist drills. It is not advisable to drill deep holes using this twist drill. Diamond Drill Bit: This particular drill is used in the bathroom for updating or remodeling. It is also used in redesigning your kitchen decoration. Furthermore, it is used on ceramic, glass, tile, limestone, stained glass, marble, fiberglass, porcelain, stone, slate and porcelain tile.When using this drill, the main concern is to obtain water at the edge of the drill bit. Drilling fiberglass may be done with or without water but make sure that the fiberglass has ample amount of water just to get the drill wet. Indexable Drill Bit: This provides an excellent performance in making short-hole drillings. Stainless steel is drilled 3x in diameter and only a short-hole must be done. Listed below are some other types of drill bits Adjustable Bit: This is built with a changeabl e cutter blade to bore holes of various sizes. It is also used for drilling gaps for wiring or piping.Around-the-corner bit: It is used to cut arched holes that are stretched in corners with a diagonal cutting surface. Auger Bits: This drill creates drill holes in wooden materials. The drill ends have a screw head so that the bits may be self fed. Brad-point drill: This drill looks almost the same as the usual bits but it has sharpened point to make wood drilling a lot easier. This drill has cleaner holes other than spade bits. Counterbore: The drill allows a screw to be driven under the wood outside. The holes that are drilled may be filled with a plug or wire.Drill Saw Bit: It is used to cut holes such as wood and metal and can enlarge current holes. Countersink: A drill that has an angled tip design that forms a â€Å"slump† in the screw head. Fly cutter: This one is often used to cut circles in wood and other soft metals. The diameter of circles may be adjusted by changin g the cutter blade setting. Hole saw: It cut holes from one to six centimeters in diameter and has a center bit for directing the cutting blade edge of the saw. Reamer bit: The tapered bit of reamer may be used on existing holes rather than to enlarge holes.Screw pilot bit: This beautiful bit is used for drilling body holes. A pilot hole is used along with the countersink. Wire Brushes: It use to remove rust and to clean up metal and is available either as a wheel or a cup with wire brush. Plastic bit: This is designed with a tip so as to prevent splintering when drilling plastic. It is important to reduce the speed and slowly drill the other side of the plastic. Plug cutter: Use this to remove cylindrical shapes from the wood. It covers the screw using a small cylindrical plate. Tapping:- Tapping is the process by which internal threads are formed.It is performed either by hand or by machine. Minor diameter of the thread is drilled and then tapping is done. Fig. 11 show the tapping processes. Fig. 35 Hand taps and tapping process using tap wrench Fig. 36 Various operations performed on drilling machine Work Holding Devices 1. Machine Table Vice: The machine vice is equipped with jaws which clamps the work piece. The vice can be bolted to the drilling table or the tail can be swung around swung around. Fig. 13 shows the standard and swivel vice. The swivel vice is a machine wise that can be swivel through 360 ° on a horizontal plane. Fig:37 1.Step Blocks These are built to allow height adjustment for mounting the drilling jobs and are used with strap clamps and long T-slot bolts. 2. Clamps These are small, portable vises , which bears against the work piece and holding devices. Common types of clamps are C-clamp, Parallel clamp, machine strap clamp, U-clamp etc.. Fig. 14 shows the correct and incorrect methods of mounting the work piece. Fig:38 11. APPLICATION OF CNC MACHINES ? cutting ? drilling ? milling ? welding ? boring ? bending ? spinning ? pinning ? gluing ? sewing ? routing Its application in some industries like -Automotive Industry Aerospace Industry -Machinery Industry -Electrical Industry -Instrumentation Industry Automotive Industry Different Products Fig:39 Aerospace Industry Aircraft Turbine Machined by 5-Axis CNC Milling Machine Fig:40 12. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CNC -Ease of Use ? CNC machines are easier for beginners ? Operation of several CNC machines at same time ? Some CNC machines don’t need any operator indeed call their operator in case of the emergencies. High Efficiency ? operate almost continuously 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Expanding Options ? Expand the machine's capabilities with SoftwareChanges and updates. No Prototyping ? new programmers provide elimination build a prototype, save time and money. Precision ? Parts are identical to each other. Reduce Waste ? Reduce waste as errors allows minimize wasted Material. Disadvantage of CNC Machines Cost CNC machinery: ? costs quite a lot m ore than conventional machinery. ? Does not eliminate the need for expensive tools. ? Expensive to repair. 13. CONCLUSION CNC machines which are applicable any type of processing. manufacturing anything is identical in shorter time. CNC machines provide many advantages. Many industries prefer using CNC machines.